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Principles of Everyday Behavior Analysis covers all major topics to introduce undergraduate students to applied behavior analysis. To see full table of contents click here: Contents. To see a Glossary of all terms taught in the book, click here: Glossary.
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L. Keith Miller
Contents
LESSON #01: Introduction to everyday behavior analysis .................................................................. 9
Reading Section ..................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction to Unit One (9); Modern behaviorism (9); The growth of behavior analysis (10); What is behavior analysis? (12); The problem with using private events to explain behavior (13); The Principle of Public Events (13); The Behavioral Strategy (14); Summary (15); Notes (15); Helpful Hints (15); Additional Readings (16)
Programmed Reading .......................................................................................................... 17
(1)Defining behavior analysis (18); (2)Principle of Public Events (19); (3)The first strategy for solving human problems (21); (4)Review (21)
Programmed Examples ........................................................................................................ 21
(1)Programmed examples (22)
LESSON #02: Definitions of everyday behaviors ............................................................................. 24
Reading Section ................................................................................................................... 24
What is behavior? (24); Behavioral definitions (27); The problem with self-reports (28); The Principle of Direct Observation (31); Summary (32)
Behavior Analysis Examples ................................................................................................. 33
Notes (36); Helpful Hints (36); Additional Readings (37)
Programmed Reading .......................................................................................................... 37
(1)What Behavior Analysis studies (38); (2)Specifying what to observe (38); (3)Approaches to observing behavior (40); (4)The first tactic of the Behavioral Strategy (41); (5)Review (42)
Programmed Examples ........................................................................................................ 42
(1)Programmed examples (43)
LESSON #03: Methods for the Observation of Everyday Behaviors ............................................... 45
Reading Section ................................................................................................................... 45
Outcome recording for behaviors that leave unique results (45); Event recording for uniform behaviors (47); Interval recording for non-uniform behaviors (49); Time sample recording for sampling a behavior (52); Summary (54)
Behavior Analysis Examples ................................................................................................. 55
Notes (56); Helpful Hints (57); Additional Readings (58)
Programmed Reading .......................................................................................................... 59
(1)Recording based on results (59); (2)Recording instances of behavior (61); (3)Recording during continuous intervals (63); (4)Recording behavior during discontinuous intervals (64); (5)Another tactic (66); (6)Review (67)
Programmed Examples ........................................................................................................ 68
(1)Programmed examples (68)
LESSON #04: Reliability and Validity of Everyday Observations ..................................................... 72
Reading Section ................................................................................................................... 72
Repeated observations (72); Reliability and accuracy (72); Computing trial reliability (73); Computing frequency reliability (75); Goal for reliability (76); Social Validity of behavioral definitions (76); Summary (78)
Behavior Analysis Examples ................................................................................................. 79
Notes (80); Helpful Hints (81); Additional Readings (82)
Programmed Reading .......................................................................................................... 83
(1)Measuring observer agreement (83); (2)Assumptions about reliability (84); (3)Two types of reliability (86); (4)New versus old behavioral definitions (88); (5)Does the behavioral definition make sense? (90); (6)A new tactic (91); (7)Review (92)
Programmed Examples ........................................................................................................ 93
(1)Programmed examples (93)
LESSON #05: Experimental Designs for Studying Everyday Behavior ............................................. 97
Reading Section ................................................................................................................... 97
Alternative explanations (97); Experimental conditions (98); Ruling out alternative explanations (98); The Principle of Single Subject Experiments (99); Comparison design (100); Reversal designs (101); Multiple baseline design (102); One-time treatments (104); Summary (104)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 104
Notes (106); Helpful Hints (106); Additional Readings (107)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 108
(1)Fundamentals of experimental design (108); (2)Making a useful experiment (108); (3)The simplest design (110); (4)Using a third condition (111); (5)Using many behaviors or persons (112); (6)Telling the difference between designs (114); (7)Another tactic (116); (8)Review (116)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 118
(1)Programmed examples (118)
LESSON #06: Visual analysis of behavioral experiments ............................................................... 122
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 122
The Principle of Visual Analysis (122); The four steps of visual analysis (124); How to learn visual analysis (125); Step #1: Are conditions divided? (125); Step #2: Are conditions stable? (126); Step #3: Are differences convincing? (127); Step #4: Did treatment cause the differences? (128); Visual analysis of comparison designs (128); Visual analysis of reversal designs (130); Visual analysis of multiple baseline experiments (131); Summary (133)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 133
Notes (134); Helpful Hints (135); Additional Readings (136)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 137
(1)Principle of Visual Analysis (137); (2)Are conditions divided? (138); (3)Are the conditions stable? (139); (4)Visual Analysis of Comparison Design (142); (5)Visual Analysis of Reversal and Multiple Baseline Designs (143); (6)Another Tactic (146); (7)Review (146)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 147
(1)Programmed examples (147)
LESSON #07: Review of Behavioral Methods ............................................................................... 151
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 151
The five tactics of the Behavioral Strategy (152); Summary (154); Notes (155); Helpful Hints (155); Glossary (155); Additional Readings (157)
Practice Review I .............................................................................................................. 157
(1)Some review questions (158)
Practice Review II ............................................................................................................. 161
(1)Programmed examples (161)
LESSON #08: Reinforcement of Everyday Behaviors .................................................................... 163
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 163
Introduction to Unit Two (163); Definition of reinforcement (163); The variety of reinforcers (165); Uses of reinforcement (166); Basic building block (166); Misuse of reinforcement (167); What behavior can be reinforced? (169); Unknown: what is not a reinforcer (169); Summary (170)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 170
Notes (172); Helpful Hints (173); Additional Readings (174)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 175
(1)How to increase behavior (175); (2)Events that precede behavior (176); (3)Events that don't increase behavior (177); (4)Desirable events (178); (5)Telling someone what to do (178); (6)Another tactic (179); (7)Review (179)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 180
(1)Programmed examples (180)
LESSON #09: Extinction of everyday behaviors ............................................................................ 184
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 184
Definition of extinction (184); Uses for extinction (185); Misuses of extinction (187); Summary (187)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 188
Notes (188); Helpful Hints (189); Additional Readings (190)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 190
(1)Reducing the rate of behavior (190); (2)Telling the difference (191); (3)What happens right after starting extinction (192); (4)Another tactic (193); (5)Review (193)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 194
(1)Programmed examples (194)
LESSON #10: Differential Reinforcement of Everyday Behavior .................................................... 198
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 198
Defining differential reinforcement (198); Uses of differential reinforcement (199); Misuses of differential reinforcement (200); Reducing behavior with differential reinforcement (201); Summary (202)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 202
Notes (203); Helpful Hints (204); Additional Readings (207)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 207
(1)The elements of differential reinforcement (207); (2)Are the behaviors different (209); (3)Use of the word only. (210); (4)Practice identifying differential reinforcement (211); (5)Another tactic (213); (6)Review (213)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 214
(1)Programmed examples (214)
LESSON #11: Shaping Everyday Behaviors .................................................................................. 218
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 218
Some examples of shaping (218); Definition of shaping (219); Shaping shooting an arrow (220); Overcoming shyness and other problems (220); What shaping is not (222); Natural shaping (222); Misuse of shaping (223); Summary (224)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 224
Notes (226); Helpful Hints (226); Additional Readings (227)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 228
(1)A procedure for creating new behavior (228); (2)Examples of shaping (229); (3)Tactic #4 in the Reinforcement Strategy (232); (4)Review (232)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 233
(1)Programmed examples (233)
LESSON #12: Reinforcer Effectiveness ......................................................................................... 237
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 237
The effect of contingency on effectiveness (237); The effect of immediacy on effectiveness (238); The effect of size on effectiveness (239); The effect of deprivation on effectiveness (240); Comparison of the four principles (241); Summary (242)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 242
Notes (243); Helpful Hints (243); Additional Readings (244)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 245
(1)The Principle of Contingency (245); (2)The Principle of Immediacy (246); (3)The Principle of Size (247); (4)The Principle of Deprivation (247); (5)Telling the principles apart (248); (6)Tactic #5 in the Reinforcement Strategy (249); (7)Review (250)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 251
(1)Programmed examples (251)
LESSON #13: Ratio Schedules ..................................................................................................... 255
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 255
Fixed-ratio schedules (255); Variable-ratio schedules (257); Advantages of ratio schedules (258); The disadvantages of ratio schedules (260); Summary (260)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 260
Notes (261); Helpful Hints (262); Additional Readings (263)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 263
(1)Generic schedules (263); (2)Defining fixed-ratio schedules (264); (3)Defining variable-ratio schedules (264); (4)Response patterns in ratio schedules (266); (5)Resistance to extinction (267); (6)Two drawbacks of ratio schedules (268); (7)Another Tactic (269); (8)Review (270)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 271
(1)Programmed examples (271)
LESSON #14: Interval Schedules of Reinforcement ....................................................................... 274
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 274
Definition of fixed-interval reinforcement (274); Definition of variable-interval schedule (275); Advantages and disadvantages of interval schedules (277); Comparison of basic intermittent schedules (277); Laws of behavior (277); Summary (277)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 278
Notes (278); Helpful Hints (279); Additional Readings (281)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 281
(1)Elements of fixed-interval schedules (281); (2)Elements of the variable-interval schedule (283); (3)Advantages and disadvantages of interval schedules (285); (4)Another tactic (286); (5)Review (286)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 287
(1)Programmed examples (287)
LESSON #15: Review of Reinforcement ....................................................................................... 291
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 291
Reinforcement can help (291); Reinforcement can harm (291); Reinforcement is everywhere (292); Reinforcement works in every age and culture (293); Reinforcement works with all behavior (293); The Reinforcement Strategy (294); The ethics of reinforcement (296); Summary (296); Helpful Hints (296); Glossary (297); Additional Readings (299)
Practice Review I .............................................................................................................. 299
(1)A set of review questions (299); (2)Another set of review questions (301)
Practice Review II ............................................................................................................. 304
(1)Programmed examples (304)
LESSON #16: Stimulus Discrimination and Everyday Behavior ..................................................... 306
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 306
Introduction to Unit Three (306); Discrimination training (307); Simple examples of discrimination training (308); Realistic examples of discrimination training (310); Establishing stimulus control (312); Summary (313)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 313
Notes (315); Helpful Hints (316); Additional Readings (316)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 317
(1)Narrowing stimulus control (317); (2)Stimuli associated with reinforcement (318); (3)Stimuli associated with extinction (319); (4)Discriminated behavior (320); (5)Summary of discrimination training (321); (6)Discrimination training versus differential reinforcement (323); (7)Complex examples of discrimination training (324); (8)Research examples of discrimination training (326); (9)Another tactic (327); (10)Review (328)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 329
(1)Programmed examples (329)
LESSON #17: Generalization Training of Everyday Behaviors ....................................................... 333
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 333
Definition of generalization training (333); The train and hope method (335); Generalization training (336); The similar stimuli method (336); Generalization of extinction (337); Concept formation (338); Summary (338)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 338
Notes (340); Helpful Hints (340); Additional Readings (341)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 341
(1)Elements of generalization training (342); (2)Generalization (343); (3)Generalization training versus discrimination training (345); (4)Tactic #2 in the stimulus control strategy (346); (5)Review (347)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 348
(1)Programmed examples (348)
LESSON #18: Programming and Fading ........................................................................................ 352
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 352
Prompts (352); Fading (352); Examples of fading (353); Programming (355); Summary (357)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 357
Notes (358); Helpful Hints (359); Additional Readings (359)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 360
(1)Prompts for discrimination (361); (2)Prompts for generalization (362); (3)Using prompts in education (363); (4)Fading versus programming (364); (5)Another tactic (365); (6)Review (365)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 366
(1)Programmed examples (366)
LESSON #19: Imitation and Instructions ........................................................................................ 370
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 370
Definition of imitation training (370); Uses of imitation training (370); Teaching how to imitate (371); Definition of instructional training (371); Uses of instructional training (372); Generalized instruction following (373); Imitation and instructions combined (373); Imitation and instructional training are efficient (373); Summary (373)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 374
Notes (375); Helpful Hints (376); Additional Readings (377)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 378
(1)Copying behavior (378); (2)Following instructions (380); (3)Imitation versus instructional training (381); (4)Research on use of instructions (382); (5)Another tactic (383); (6)Review (384)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 384
(1)Programmed examples (385)
LESSON #20: Conditioned Reinforcers and Everyday Situations .................................................. 389
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 389
Definition of primary and secondary reinforcer (389); Definition of generalized reinforcers (391); Comparison of different types of reinforcers (393); Stimulus/response chains (394); Summary (395)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 395
Notes (396); Helpful Hints (397); Additional Readings (398)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 398
(1)Unlearned reinforcers (398); (2)Learned reinforcers (399); (3)Reinforcers that usually work (401); (4)Responses that occur together (403); (5)Another tactic (405); (6)Review (405)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 406
(1)Programmed examples (406)
LESSON #21: Review of Stimulus Control .................................................................................... 411
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 411
The Stimulus Control Strategy (413); Stimulus control and other cognitive behaviors (414); Summary (416); Helpful Hints (416); Glossary (416)
Practice Review I .............................................................................................................. 418
(1)Some review questions (418)
Practice Review II ............................................................................................................. 421
(1)Programmed examples (421)
LESSON #22: Punishment by Contingent Stimulation .................................................................... 423
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 423
Introduction to Unit Four (423); Definition of punishment (424); The use of punishment (425); Everyday use of punishers (426); Giving punishment is reinforcing (427); Social validity of punishment (427); Analogues between punishment and reinforcement (428); Summary (429)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 429
Notes (430); Helpful Hints (431); Additional Readings (432)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 433
(1)Aversive control (433); (2)Another way to reduce behaviors (434); (3)When is a procedure punishment? (435); (4)Types of punishment (437); (5)Discriminative stimuli for punishment (438); (6)Similarities with other procedures (439); (7)Another tactic (439); (8)Review (440)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 440
(1)Programmed examples (440)
LESSON #23: Punishment by Contingent Withdrawal .................................................................... 444
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 444
Definition of punishment by contingent withdrawal (444); Uses of punishment by contingent withdrawal (444); Uses of time out (445); Problems with punishment (446); Adding punishment to reinforcement (446); Punishment applies to making a response (447); Who decides what is undesirable behavior? (447); Summary (448)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 448
Helpful Hints (449); Additional Readings (450)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 450
(1)Decreasing behavior by withdrawing events (450); (2)Temporary withdrawal (452); (3)Punishment can't follow a behavior that doesn't occur (454); (4)Punishment by contingent withdrawal versus extinction (455); (5)Another tactic (456); (6)Review (456)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 457
(1)Programmed examples (457)
LESSON #24: Escape and Avoidance ........................................................................................... 460
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 460
Definition of negative reinforcement (460); Uses of escape and avoidance (461); How to respond to coercive behavior (463); Analogues between positive and negative (465); Summary (467)
Behavior Analysis Examples ............................................................................................... 467
Notes (468); Helpful Hints (468); Additional Readings (470)
Programmed Reading ........................................................................................................ 470
(1)Using the termination or prevention of events (470); (2)Negative reinforcement versus punishment (471); (3)Behaviors that terminate or prevent events (472); (4)Coercive behavior (474); (5)Analogues between positive and negative reinforcement (475); (6)Another tactic (476); (7)Review (477)
Programmed Examples ...................................................................................................... 478
(1)Programmed examples (478)
LESSON #25: Review of Aversive Control ................................................................................... 482
Reading Section ................................................................................................................. 482
Four types of contingencies (482); The aversive control strategy (482); Reducing the need for aversive control (483); Functional analysis of undesirable behavior (484); Freedom (485); Helpful Hints (485); Glossary (486)
Practice Review I .............................................................................................................. 486
(1)Some review questions (487); (2)Some more review questions (490); (3)Some more review questions (492)
Practice Review II ............................................................................................................. 494
(1)Some review questions (494); (2)Some more review questions (496)
References: .................................................................................................................................... 498
Answer Key .................................................................................................................................. 530
Class Quizzes ................................................................................................................................ 563
CUMULATIVE GLOSSARY:
APPROXIMATION, (successive): Any behavior similar to a target behavior for a program of shaping.[2]
AVERSIVE CONTROL STRATEGY: The strategy of using aversive control if positive control fails.
*This strategy consists of two tactics:
*(1)Decrease undesirable behavior through punishment as a last resort.
*(2)Increase desirable behavior through negative reinforcement as a last resort.[4]
AVOIDANCE: Any behavior that prevents a negative reinforcer from occurring.[4]
BACKUP REINFORCER: Any reinforcer that makes a conditioned or generalized reinforcer effective.
*When a person obtains a conditioned or generalized reinforcer, he or she can exchange it for other reinforcers. These reinforcers are called backups.[3]
BASELINE: The period without the treatment.[1]
BEHAVIOR: Anything that a person does.
*This implies that the activity is physical.
*This includes obvious, subtle, internal and private events.
*Operant behavior is synonymous with the term voluntary behavior.[1]
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: The study of environmental events that change behavior.
*The founder of behavior analysis is Skinner.
*Behavior analysis exploded in popularity in 1970.
*Behavior analysis doesn't deny thoughts and feelings.
*Behavior analysis isn't stimulus-response behaviorism.[1]
BEHAVIORAL DEFINITION: A statement that specifies exactly what behavior to observe.
*Creating a behavioral definition is the first step in studying behavior.
*It makes communication clearer; it maintains consistency of observations.[1]
BEHAVIORAL STRATEGY: The strategy of defining human problems as behavioral problems.
*It involves five tactics:
*(1) create a behavioral definition of the problem behavior.
*(2) use a method of direct observation to gather information.
*(3) check the reliability and social validity of your observations.
*(4) use a single subject experiment to test your treatment.
*(5) do a visual analysis of your data.[1]
CHAIN: (stimulus/response chain) A sequence where each behavior produces an SD for the next behavior and the last behavior is reinforced.
*Most of our behavior consists of chains.[3]
COMPARISON DESIGN: An experimental design that involves comparing the baseline condition with the treatment condition.
*It rules out individual differences but not time coincidences.[1]
CONDITIONED PUNISHER: A punisher that loses its effectiveness permanently through unpaired presentations.[4]
CONDITIONED REINFORCER: A reinforcer that loses its effectiveness permanently through unpaired presentations.
*An unpaired presentation occurs when the event does not produce a backup reinforcer.
*Behavior analysts generally assume that conditioned reinforcers are created by pairing a nonreinforcer with a reinforcer. This may happen when the nonreinforcer serves as a discriminative stimulus.[3]
CONTINUOUS (reinforcement): A generic schedule of reinforcement in which every response is reinforced.
*Behavior analysts usually use this schedule when shaping a new behavior.
CONVINCING DIFFERENCES: Every pair of adjacent conditions must be divided; every condition must be stable.[1]
DEPRIVATION: The frequency with which a person has received a particular reinforcer in the recent past
*The less frequent the reinforcer, the more deprived the person.[2]
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT: Involves two or more physically different behaviors; one behavior is reinforced, and all others are extinguished.[2]
DIRECT OBSERVATION: The observer personally sees and immediately records behavior.[1]
DISCRIMINATED BEHAVIOR: A behavior that is more likely to occur in the presence of the SD than in the presence of the S-delta.
*This occurs in a discrimination training procedure.[3]
DISCRIMINATION TRAINING: The procedure in which a behavior is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus and extinguished in the presence of another stimulus.
*It is also used to label complex situations involving two or more simultaneous discrimination training situations. One behavior is reinforced during stimulus A and extinguished during stimulus B. Another behavior is extinguished during stimulus A and reinforced during stimulus B. You can easily incorrectly label this as "differential reinforcement."[3]
DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS FOR PUNISHMENT (abbreviated as "SP"): A stimulus that precedes a behavior and is present only if punishment will occur for the behavior.[4]
DIVIDED CONDITION: The ranges of the last three points of two conditions are mutually exclusive. [1]
ESCAPE: Behavior that terminates a negative reinforcer.[4]
EVENT RECORDING: You record a response when you see an instance of the behavior.
*You use this method when the instances of the behavior are uniform.[1]
EXTINCTION: The procedure in which an event that followed a behavior is stopped, and the rate of the behavior decreases.
*An extinction burst is a temporary increase in responding as soon as extinction begins.[2]
FADING: The temporary use of a prompt to establish a specific discrimination.[3]
FIXED-INTERVAL: A schedule for reinforcing the first response after a fixed period of time from the prior reinforcement.
*This schedule usually produces a scallop pattern of responding where people tend to pause after a reinforcer and then to gradually increase their response rate until they are working at a high rate at the moment they receive the next reinforcer.[2]
FIXED-RATIO: A schedule for reinforcing the first response after a fixed number of prior responses.
*This schedule usually produces a stairstep pattern where people pause after reinforcement and then work at a very high rate until the next reinforcement.
*The overall rate is higher than all schedules other than variable-ratio.[2]
GENERALIZATION: A behavior occurs in the presence of a novel stimulus.
*A novel stimulus is any stimulus in whose presence this behavior has not been reinforced. Usually the novel stimulus is physically similar to an established SD.[3]
GENERALIZATION TRAINING: Reinforcing a behavior in a series of stimulus situations until it generalizes to other members of that stimulus class.[3]
GENERALIZED PUNISHER: Any conditioned punisher that is associated with many other punishers.[4]
GENERALIZED REINFORCER: A conditioned reinforcer associated with many other reinforcers.
*This kind of reinforcer is very effective because the person is usually deprived with respect to at least one of the backup reinforcers.[3]
IMITATION TRAINING: (1) The teacher demonstrates the imitative stimulus. (2) The learner emits the imitative behavior. (3) The teacher reinforces it.
*The imitative stimulus is the demonstration by the teacher of the desired behavior.
*The imitative behavior is the response by the learner that copies the imitative stimulus.
*The imitative stimulus is an SD for the imitative behavior. All other imitative stimuli are an S-delta for the imitative behavior.[3]
INSTRUCTIONAL TRAINING: (1) The teacher gives a verbal description. (2) The learner emits the instructed behavior. (3) The teacher reinforces it.
*The verbal description is the teacher’s description of the desired behavior.
*The instructed behavior is the learner’s performance of the desired behavior.
*The verbal description is an SD for the instructed behavior. Other verbal descriptions are an S-delta for the instructed behavior.[3]
INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT: A generic schedule of reinforcement in which only some responses are reinforced.
*Ratio and interval schedules are common examples.
*A person trained on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement will have greater resistance to extinction.
*Intermittent reinforcement also produces more responding for fewer reinforcers, thus combating the problem of satiation.[2]
INTERVAL RECORDING: You record a response if the behavior occurs in one of a series of continuous intervals.
*You use this method when the behavior is not uniform.[1]
MULTIPLE BASELINE DESIGN: An experimental design that introduces the treatment at different times for two or more behavioral variables.
*This design rules out alternatives.[1]
NEGATIVE REINFORCER: Any event that, when terminated or prevented by a behavior, increases the rate of that behavior.
*A negative reinforcer is simply a type of reinforcer. A negative reinforcer can be used in shaping, discrimination training, and conditioned reinforcement.
*Both positive and negative reinforcers increase the rate of a behavior. The difference is that a positive reinforcer is an event that is delivered while a negative reinforcer is an event that is terminated or prevented.[4]
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: The procedure of following a behavior with a negative reinforcer.
*Any procedure or principle that applies to positive reinforcement may also be applied to negative reinforcement.[4]
OUTCOME RECORDING: You record a response when you see the result of the behavior.[1]
PRIMARY PUNISHER: Any punisher that loses its effectiveness only temporarily through satiation.
*Primary punishers are usually basic physical events such as hitting, shocking, pinching, and so on.[4]
PRIMARY REINFORCER: Any reinforcing event that loses its effectiveness only temporarily through satiation.[3]
PRINCIPLE OF CONTINGENCY: The more consistently the reinforcer is delivered only for the desired behavior, the more effective the reinforcer.
*To decide whether this principle has been followed, ask the question, "Was the reinforcer given only when the desired behavior occurred?"[2]
PRINCIPLE OF DEPRIVATION: The more deprived the person, the more effective the reinforcer.
*To decide whether the principle has been followed, ask "Has the reinforcer rarely been delivered?"[2]
PRINCIPLE OF DIRECT OBSERVATION: Using trained observers for the direct observation of behavior.[1]
PRINCIPLE OF IMMEDIACY: The more immediate the delivery of the reinforcer after the behavior, the more effective the reinforcer.
*To decide whether this principle has been followed, ask the question, "Was the reinforcer delivered within one minute of the behavior (or while the behavior was still occurring)?"[2]
PRINCIPLE OF PUBLIC EVENTS: Seeking the causes of behavior in environmental events.
*The problem with using private events to explain behavior is that you still must explain the private events.[1]
PRINCIPLE OF SIZE: The more worthwhile the amount of a reinforcer, the more effective the reinforcer.
*To decide whether the principle has been followed, ask the question, "Was the amount of reinforcement worthwhile?"[2]
PRINCIPLE OF SINGLE SUBJECT EXPERIMENTS: To expose the same person to the baseline and treatment.[1]
PRINCIPLE OF VISUAL ANALYSIS: Finding differences that look convincing.
*Differences are convincing if conditions are divided and stable. [1]
PROGRAMMING: The use of prompts to establish a generalization.
*Programmed instruction is a form of programming involving three features: (1) it requires a written response, (2) it gives immediate feedback, and (3) it uses small steps.[3]
PROMPT: An added stimulus that increases the probability that a person will make the correct response in the presence of a novel stimulus.[3]
PUNISHER: Any event that follows a response and decreases the rate of that behavior.
*This definition of "punisher" also applies to the withdrawal of an event following a behavior such that the rate of the behavior decreases --- for instance, fining people or using "time out" from a reinforcing activity.[4]
PUNISHMENT: The procedure of following a behavior with a punisher.
*"Punishment by contingent stimulation" involves delivery of a punisher that decreases the rate of the behavior.
*"Punishment by contingent withdrawal" involves withdrawal of a reinforcer that decreases the rate of the behavior.
*When a person is temporarily removed from a reinforcing activity, that form of punishment by contingent withdrawal is called time out.[4]
RATIO STRAIN: Requiring so many responses for a reinforcer that the behavior slows or even totally stops.[2]
REINFORCEMENT: The procedure of using a reinforcer to increase the rate of a behavior.[2]
REINFORCEMENT CONTROL STRATEGY: The strategy of changing the contingency between behavior and reinforcement.
*It involves seven tactics:
*(1)increase desirable behavior through reinforcement.
*(2)decrease undesirable behavior through extinction.
*(3)increase a desirable behavior relative to undesirable behavior through differential reinforcement.
*(4)create new behavior through shaping.
*(5)use the principles of reinforcer effectiveness.
*(6)increase response rate with a ratio schedule.
*(7)reduce reinforcer frequency with an interval schedule.[2]
REINFORCER: Any event that follows a behavior and increases the rate of that behavior.[2]
RELIABILITY: The percentage of agreement between two independent observers: 100xA/(A+D).
*Both observers must observe at the same time and use the same behavioral definition.
*Trial reliability is where you compare each observation. You can always use it with interval and time sample recording. You can only use trial reliability with outcome or event recording of complex behaviors with a checklist.
*Frequency reliability is where you compare overall frequencies. You can use it with outcome or event recording of simple behaviors.
*Old definitions should reach 90% while new definitions only 80%.[1]
REVERSAL DESIGN: An experimental design that looks at a behavior during baseline, treatment and reversal.
*It can rule out alternatives.[1]
RULING OUT ALTERNATIVES: Showing that events other than the treatment are unlikely to have caused an observed difference.
*One alternative is that any effect is caused by individual differences.
*Another alternative is that the effect is caused by time coincidences.[1]
S-DELTA: A stimulus that precedes a behavior and is present only if extinction will occur for a particular response.[3]
SATIATION: The opposite of deprivation.
*The more frequently a person has received a particular reinforcer in the recent past, the more satiated he or she is.[2]
SD (discriminative stimulus): A stimulus that precedes a behavior and is present only if reinforcement will occur for that behavior.[3]
SELF-REPORT OBSERVATIONS: The observer relies on their memory of the behavior.[1]
*The problem with self-reports such as questionnaires and interviews is that they are usually inaccurate or of unknown accuracy.
SHAPING: The use of differential reinforcement on a series of successive approximations to a target behavior.[2]
SOCIAL VALIDITY: The correlation between ratings by outside judges and observations by trained observers.[1]
STABLE CONDITION: The last three numbers of one condition are not moving closer to the numbers in the other condition.[1]
STIMULUS: Anything that affects the person's behavior.[3]
STIMULUS CLASS: A set of related stimuli.[3]
STIMULUS CONTROL: The increased probability of a discriminated behavior that is produced by a stimulus.[3]
STIMULUS CONTROL STRATEGY: The strategy of teaching people when to emit the desired behavior.
*The strategy includes 5 tactics:
*(1)Narrow stimulus control through discrimination training.
*(2)Broaden stimulus control through generalization training.
*(3)Create new stimulus control by using temporary prompts.
*(4)Create complex stimulus control through imitation training and instructional training.
*(5)Make reinforcement more practical by creating conditioned reinforcers.[3]
TARGET BEHAVIOR: The ultimate goal of shaping.[2]
TIME SAMPLE RECORDING: You record a response if one behavior occurs within one of a series of discontinuous intervals.
*Often this means observing only a small part of the total time.
*This method is also used to observe multiple behaviors of one person or multiple people performing one behavior.[1]
TREATMENT: The method introduced to modify the rate of a behavior.[1]
UNKNOWN: Any behavioral procedure (1)that is unsuccessful in changing behavior, or (2) for which a name and definition are untaught. [2]
VARIABLE-INTERVAL: A schedule for reinforcing the first response after a varying period of time from the prior reinforcement.
*This schedule usually causes a person to respond at a low but uniform rate.[2]
VARIABLE-RATIO: A schedule for reinforcing the first response after a varying number of prior responses.
*This schedule usually causes people to work at a high and uniform rate of speed.
*It produces the highest rate of responding of simple schedules.[2]
STUDENT NAME: _______________________________________ ID NO.: ________
01) A month ago, Danny's mother started spanking him any time that he did not feed the cats early in the morning before going to school. Danny now feeds the cats almost every morning, a vast improvement over his prior performance. Danny's cat feeding is an example of ______________________ behavior.
02) Glenda frequently tried to flirt with Peter. He NEVER reciprocated but she kept trying anyway. Finally, in desperation, Peter started simply walking away from her the instant she started flirting. Glenda stopped flirting after Peter did this twice. What procedure did Peter use to eliminate flirting: ______________________.
03) Paulette was fed up with Alonso making advances towards her in public. She explained to him that it made her uncomfortable but he kept right on "making his moves". One day, right in front of Alonso's parents, Paulette screamed, "Don't touch me there!" Alonso has behaved like a perfect gentleman ever since. What procedure did Paulette use to modify Alonso's behavior: ______________________.
04) Tom Jones was sick of Jed making fun of his name. Anytime Jed made fun of his name he punched him. Jed still makes fun of his name. What proceduredid Tom use to change Jed's behavior: ______________________.
05)The figure on your left shows Dave's and Dales responses.
Divided: ____; stable: ____; convincing: ____; cause: ____ (no partial credit).
06) Gloria tutored Tom in physics. Tom was having particular trouble remembering the formula E=mc(squared). Gloria would help him answer questions about the formula by saying, "You know, energy, mass, and the speed of light." As he got good at recalling the formula with those hints, she started dropping the hints, one by one. Pretty soon Tom could remember the formula with no hints. What procedure had Gloria used to teach Tom the formula: __________________________.
07) During a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement, responding produces a reinforcer after a(n) _________________________ number of repetitions.
08) George often cam on to Phyllis during lunch, even though she never encouraged him. Finally in desperation, she put lunch away, including his portion, the instant George started. George stopped coming on to her after the third time she did this. What procedure did Phyllis use to reduce George's coming on to her: ___________________.
09) The second tactic of the Aversive Control Strategy is to increase desirable behavior through _____________________________ reinforcement as a last resort.
10) Marv could never catch Alice actually drinking. But then he got the bright idea of measuring the amount of liquor missing from their stock of booze. He found out that Alice was drinking half a quart a day! What method of observation was Marv using to measure Alice's drinking: ____________________ recording.
11) Anytime that Ann asked Phil out, he gave her a bottle of perfume. Ann doesn't ask Phil out any more often as a result. Giving Ann a bottle of perfume is an event called a(n) __________________.
12) Dr. Robins was writing a book about sexual practices of Americans. As part of her research she interviewed Verna. Verna claimed to have sex even when she was sick. The problem with Dr. Robins research is that Verna's claims are likely to be inaccurate. We call Verna's claims_________________ observations.
13 The record of a behavior prior to the introduction of a treatment designed to alter its frequency is called a(n) _______________.
14) Frank used to be a very warm person, hugging friends when he greeted them. But everyone ignored his hugging, perhaps because they were slightly embarrassed, and Frank gradually stopped hugging anyone. What procedure did his embarrassed friends use to stop his hugging behavior: ______________________.
15) Teaching a dog first to look up at you, then lift its paw off the floor, then let you shake it, by reinforcing correct approximations and extinguishing incorrect approximations at each stage would be an example of what procedure: ______________________.
16) If a reinforcer is delivered only after the desired behavior has occurred and never after any other behavior, then what principle of reinforcer effectiveness is being followed: ______________________.
17) If Jane answered "uno" when asked "what is the Spanish word for one" but not when asked "what is the Spanish word for two?" we would say that the question "what is the Spanish word for one" exerts __________________________ over the response "uno".
18) John learned to drink with his friends while he was away at college. He tried drinking exactly the same way during his next visit home: one beer sipped slowly over a two hour period. His parents saw him and simply turned around and left the room. This happened a few times before John decided he shouldn't be drinking at home. What procedure explains John drinking while at school but not when he is at home: ________________________.
19) Tom's dorm friends ignored him when he complained of the food and reacted warmly when hepraised it. Soon Tom came to speak positively about the food and he seldom griped. When he went home, however, he soon reverted to his old ways and complained about the food and seldom had a good word to say about it. A behavior analyst would describe this pattern by saying that Tom's high rate of praise in the dorm did NOT ______________________ to his home.
20) Don developed a behavioral definition of self-confidence. Suppose that Don then asked ten students to rate the self-confidence of Maria in an interview situation before and after she was trained to act in a self-confident manner. If their ratings indicated that she was more self-confident after training then before, this would provide evidence that Don's behavioral definition of self-confidence had ______________________.
21) Seeking the causes of behavior in events outside the individual is called the Principle of ___________________ Events.
22) If Ken checked every thirty minutes to see if Kevin was mowing the lawn, and praised him as soon as he saw Kevin working, then Kevin's mowing behavior would be on a(n) ________________________________ schedule of reinforcement.
23) Kevin always doodled on his American History homework. His teacher kept him after school whenever he doodled on his homework. Now Kevin's homework has bigger doodles. His teacher used the procedure of ______________________ on Kevin's doodling.
24) The procedure in which a teacher demonstrates the behavior and then reinforces a similar response by the learner is called _______________________.
25) Any reinforcer that can be weakened only by frequent presentation is called a(n) ______________________ reinforcer.
REVIEW EXAM: 4 TEST ANSWER SHEETS FORM: A
01) (2470020) avoidance
02) (2370200) punishment [or:punishment by contingent withdrawal]
03) (2270100) punishment
04) (2270180) unknown
05) (0670080) yes; no; no; no
06) (1870170) fading
07) (1370330) variable [or:varying or:differing]
08) (2370210) punishment
09) (2470180) negative
10) (0370330) outcome
11) (0870120) unknown
12) (0270190) self-report [or:self report]
13) (0570790) baseline
14) (0970320) extinction
15) (1170150) shaping [or:chain or: stimulus/response chain]
16) (1270440) contingency
17) (1670250) stimulus control
18) (1070100) unknown [or:discrimination training]
19) (1770060) generalize
20) (0470040) social validity
21) (0170130) Public
22) (1470040) fixed-interval [or:FI-30]
23) (2370050) unknown
24) (1970170) imitation training
25) (2070400) primary